top of page
GettyImages-1445571824.jpg

Full charge

Navigating the battery life cycle from mining to recycling

Sauli Pisilä

Batteries are essential to modern society, powering everything from smartphones to electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems, supporting the shift to a low-carbon economy. However, the battery life cycle – from mining critical raw materials to recycling end-of-life cells – presents significant environmental, social, and economic challenges.

As the demand grows, understanding and improving each stage of the battery life cycle is essential in building a sustainable supply chain.

Understanding the entire battery life cycle is essential for developing resource-efficient, sustainable, and profitable investments and operations. As reliance on batteries grows for transportation and renewable energy storage, integrating sustainable practices into the design and operation of production facilities is imperative.

1. Mining: the start of the battery life cycle

The journey of a battery begins with extracting essential minerals containing lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, phosphorus, iron, copper, and graphite. These materials are critical to the performance of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). As battery demand is projected to quadruple by end of the decade, the mining industry faces pressure to expand responsibly and sustainably. Investments in lithium alone will need to reach USD94 billion by 2030 and USD188 billion by 2040. The industry needs to move towards more responsible practices, integrating principles of circularity, and embracing sustainable extraction methods.

 

“Jervois is pleased to work with AFRY on a cobalt refinery Bankable Feasibility Study, which is fully funded by the U.S. Government. Once financed and constructed, the facility will produce cobalt in sulfate form, suitable for use in America’s automotive industry, and will contribute to underpin its transition to high performance, safe electric vehicles.“ Bryce Crocker, CEO of Jervois Global Limited.

2. Converting raw materials into battery-grade chemicals

After extraction, battery minerals undergo chemical and metallurgical processing to obtain battery-grade chemicals. Nickel, cobalt, and manganese are used in high-energy-density cathode materials (NCM) for high-end, long-range EVs. Another variant is the NCA, where aluminium is used instead of manganese. Iron and phosphate are used in LFP batteries, which are gaining popularity due to their lower cost, enabling price parity with traditional cars. Lithium, which is required in both battery types, is extracted from brine deposits or hard rock (spodumene). Natural and synthetic graphite are the most common anode materials.

3. Production of battery pre-materials

Once materials are refined, they are used to create Precursor Cathode Active Materials (pCAM). In NCM/NCA precursor production, nickel, cobalt, and manganese or aluminum sulfates are mixed, followed by co-precipitation of a mixed metal hydroxide or carbonate. This process is critical to the uniformity and performance of the final cathode active material (CAM).

In CAM production, pCAM is blended with lithium and subjected to high-temperature calcination to form the correct crystal structure

4. Battery manufacturing and battery applications

Battery manufacturing plants, or gigafactories, produce batteries on a large scale. These projects are highly complex and capital-intensive, requiring multiple interrelated processes including slurry preparation & mixing, electrode coating & drying, calendaring and cutting, cell assembly and electrolyte filling and formation and aging. Specialised equipment and clean room solutions are essential for maintaining low moisture and contamination levels.

 

The produced cells are then assembled into modules and packs for various applications. The global battery demand in 2023 was dominated by transportation (82%) followed by energy storage systems (9%) and consumer electronics (9%).

5. End-of-life recycling

When batteries reach the end of their life, recycling through hydro- and pyrometallurgical processes, preceded by mechanical separation, are crucial in reclaiming materials for reuse. Technologies are advancing rapidly, particularly for NCM batteries, while LFP battery recycling remains underdeveloped due to its lower value. Second life applications, where EV batteries are repurposed for less demanding roles, are also gaining traction.

6. Closing the loop: towards a circular battery economy

To mitigate the environmental impact of batteries, the focus is on extending battery lifespan, maximising materials recycling, replacing toxic chemicals, and minimising energy use and waste generation.

Battery value chain

08 Battery ValueChain_Draft1-RO BLUE&BROWN_Zeichenfläche 1 (1).png

Key strategies in this transition include:

 

– Alternative processing: The production of battery materials is resource-intensive, requiring large amounts of water and energy. Ongoing research focuses on optimising processes to reduce the amount of unwanted by-products and energy consumption.

– Design for recycling: Range is one limiting factor for the widespread adoption of EVs, which means that energy density has been prioritised over recyclability in battery design. However, as energy density improves, the emphasis may shift towards recyclability to facilitate easier disassembly and higher materials recovery.

– Efficient recycling processes: Advancing technologies to recover more materials with less energy and fewer by-products.

– Tracing and sustainable sourcing: Ensuring that battery materials are sourced responsibly, with attention to environmental and social concerns. Tracing concepts like battery passports track relevant battery sourcing information digitally.

– Reducing the use of scarce materials toxic chemicals: Developing alternative materials reduces reliance on limited and harmful resources.

– Government policies and industry standards play a vital role in driving the circular economy. Incentives for recycling, regulations on disposal, and support for research into sustainable technologies are all essential.

Turning market challenges to future opportunities

The current downturn in the battery sector, driven by slower-than-expected growth in the EV market, subsequent overcapacity and declining battery cell and battery material prices has had a major impact in the industry during the last year. Many projects have been cancelled or delayed and companies are adapting by focusing on their core businesses, cost-efficiency and time to market.

 

This period of market adjustment presents an opportunity to refine processes, enhance recycling technologies, and explore alternative materials and product strategies. Technological advancements are rapidly improving battery efficiency, reducing costs, and enabling better recyclability.

 

Emerging markets, such as the grid-scale energy storage and next-generation battery chemistries, also present exciting growth opportunities. While short-term fluctuations in market conditions create uncertainty, the battery sector is well-positioned for long-term growth as it plays a critical role in the global energy transition. According to various sources the growth is still expected to increase CAGR ~15-25% until the end of 2030.

Green transition technologies are mineral intensive

Asset 3NEW1.webp
  • Facebook
  • Instagram
  • LinkedIn
  • X
  • Youtube

afry.com

© 2025 AFRY AB

AFRY Logo - White.webp
bottom of page